Throughout China’s imperial history, empresses have played key roles in shaping the nation’s politics, culture, and society. Some of these powerful women have risen to extraordinary prominence, leaving lasting legacies that continue to resonate through Chinese history. Among these women, two empresses stand out in particular: Wu Zetian, the only woman to ever officially rule China as emperor, and Empress Dowager Cixi, the de facto ruler of the Qing Dynasty for much of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In this article, we will explore the lives and legacies of these remarkable empresses, examining how they navigated the patriarchal structure of imperial China, their impact on Chinese politics, and how their rule has been interpreted over time. From the bold rise of Wu Zetian in the Tang Dynasty to the political maneuvering of Empress Dowager Cixi in the Qing Dynasty, their stories demonstrate the complex roles women played in China’s imperial courts, often defying the expectations of their time.
Wu Zetian: The Only Female Emperor of China
Wu Zetian’s name is inseparably linked to one of the most fascinating chapters in Chinese history. Rising from a relatively humble background, she became the only woman in Chinese history to rule the empire as emperor, a feat that not only defied gender norms but also reshaped the political landscape of the Tang Dynasty.
Early Life and Entry into the Court
Born in 624 CE, Wu Zetian came from a relatively prominent family. She was selected as a concubine for Emperor Taizong at a young age, joining the imperial harem at the age of 14. After Taizong’s death, she became a concubine to his son, Emperor Gaozong. Throughout her time in the court, Wu Zetian was known for her intelligence, beauty, and political acumen.
After giving birth to the emperor’s children and becoming the mother of his heirs, Wu Zetian gradually became more involved in the politics of the court. At a time when the emperor’s health began to decline, Wu Zetian saw an opportunity to consolidate power. She had the backing of key military and political officials, which allowed her to elevate her position within the court.
Becoming Emperor: The Path to Absolute Power
In 690 CE, Wu Zetian achieved the unthinkable by declaring herself emperor of China, founding the short-lived Zhou Dynasty. Her rise to power was marked by significant controversy, particularly because women were traditionally excluded from holding such a title. Yet, Wu Zetian did not shy away from using her political savvy, including eliminating rivals and garnering support from various factions within the court.
Her reign as emperor saw a number of political and social reforms, many of which were aimed at strengthening her own position while simultaneously improving the lives of the Chinese people. Wu Zetian implemented policies that encouraged education, expanded the civil service exams, and supported the Buddhist faith. Her reign marked a period of relative prosperity for the empire, as she effectively ruled the empire during a time of military and diplomatic success.
Challenges to Her Rule and Legacy
Despite her successes, Wu Zetian’s reign was also marred by internal strife. Her ruthless consolidation of power, particularly the elimination of perceived rivals within the court, earned her a reputation for cruelty. Her rule was constantly challenged by factions within the aristocracy who disapproved of a woman in power. Moreover, her actions to strengthen the Buddhist religion were met with resistance from Confucian scholars, who viewed Buddhism as a threat to traditional Chinese values.
Despite these challenges, Wu Zetian’s reign remained largely effective, and her ability to maintain power for over 15 years in a male-dominated society is a testament to her extraordinary political abilities. After her death in 705 CE, she was deposed by her sons, but her influence endured. She remains an iconic figure in Chinese history, symbolizing both the potential and limitations of female power in a patriarchal society.
Empress Dowager Cixi: The Power Behind the Qing Throne
Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) was another remarkable woman who rose to power in a male-dominated imperial system. Serving as regent for much of the late Qing Dynasty, Cixi exercised immense political influence, and her decisions helped shape the fate of the empire in the face of both internal and external challenges. Though her reign is often controversial, there is no denying that she was one of the most powerful women in Chinese history.
Early Life and Entry into the Qing Court
Cixi was born into a relatively low-ranking family in 1835. She was selected as a concubine to Emperor Xianfeng in 1851, and soon after, she gave birth to a son, the future Tongzhi Emperor. As the mother of the emperor’s son, Cixi gained significant influence within the court. In 1861, after the untimely death of Emperor Xianfeng, Cixi became the regent for her young son, as he was only five years old.
Cixi’s rise to power was not immediate but was facilitated by her strategic alliances with powerful officials in the court. She gained the support of the Empress Dowager and other high-ranking court officials, all of whom saw her as a viable political figure who could manage the imperial throne during her son’s minority.
Political Maneuvering and Reforms
Though initially seen as a figurehead, Empress Dowager Cixi proved to be a highly effective ruler. She was a master of political maneuvering, often navigating complex court intrigues and rivalries to maintain her grip on power. Over time, she consolidated her position by using her influence over the imperial bureaucracy and the military, ensuring that her decisions were respected and implemented.
Cixi is credited with overseeing some reforms, particularly in the later years of her reign, as China struggled to modernize in the face of Western and Japanese pressures. She attempted to adopt more progressive policies, such as the Self-Strengthening Movement, which sought to strengthen China’s military and industrial capabilities. However, her attempts at reform were often slow and met with resistance, and many scholars argue that Cixi’s conservative policies ultimately contributed to the Qing Dynasty’s downfall.
The Boxer Rebellion and the End of the Qing Dynasty
One of the most significant events during Cixi’s reign was the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising. Initially, Cixi supported the Boxers, but as the rebellion escalated and foreign powers intervened militarily, she was forced to shift her stance. In the aftermath of the rebellion, Cixi was left with little choice but to accept foreign concessions, further weakening the Qing Dynasty’s control over China.
By the early 20th century, Cixi’s power had diminished, and the Qing Dynasty was in decline. In 1908, shortly before her death, Cixi made one final decision: she chose the young Puyi, the last emperor of China, to succeed her son, the Guangxu Emperor. This marked the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of a new era in Chinese history.
Legacy and Criticism
Empress Dowager Cixi remains a polarizing figure in Chinese history. While some view her as a pragmatic leader who was able to preserve the Qing Dynasty during a turbulent period, others criticize her for failing to implement meaningful reforms that could have saved the empire. Her reputation is shaped by her ability to maneuver in the face of adversity, but it is also marred by her conservative tendencies and her role in maintaining the imperial system, which ultimately led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.
Comparison: Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Cixi
While both Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Cixi were powerful women who exercised immense influence over Chinese politics, their reigns and the circumstances surrounding their rise to power were vastly different. Wu Zetian’s reign as emperor was a bold assertion of female power in a male-dominated society, while Cixi’s power was more behind-the-scenes as a regent for her son. Wu Zetian ruled in her own right, while Cixi navigated the complexities of court politics to maintain her influence over the emperor and the Qing government.
Both women, however, share a common legacy of defying the norms of their time and asserting their political will. Their stories serve as reminders of the resilience and political acumen required for women to succeed in imperial China, a society where power was overwhelmingly concentrated in the hands of men.
Conclusion
The stories of Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Cixi highlight the complex roles women have played in the history of China’s imperial courts. Both women defied traditional gender roles and left indelible marks on Chinese history. Wu Zetian’s reign as emperor remains a testament to her ambition and determination, while Empress Dowager Cixi’s legacy is one of political maneuvering and governance during a time of profound change.
These empresses, though often viewed through the lens of controversy and criticism, were among the most influential figures in Chinese history. Their ability to rise to power, navigate court politics, and rule in an imperial system dominated by men serves as a powerful reminder of the potential for women to impact the course of history. Today, their stories continue to captivate and inspire, illustrating that the paths to power, love, and legacy are rarely straightforward.